December 2024 | Oceanography
IN
PROGRESS
NISKINe
THE NEAR-INERTIAL SHEAR AND KINETIC ENERGY
IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC EXPERIMENT
THE OFFICIAL MAGAZINE OF THE OCEANOGRAPHY SOCIETY
VOL. 37, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2024
Oceanography
Oceanography | Vol. 37, No. 4
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December 2024 | Oceanography
contents VOL. 37, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2024
SPECIAL ISSUE ON NISKINe
6 Introduction
By H.L. Simmons, L. St. Laurent, L. Rainville, and L. Thomas
10 Why Near-Inertial Waves Are Less Afected by Vorticity in the Northeast
Pacific Than in the North Atlantic
By L.N. Thomas, S.M. Kelly, T. Klenz, W.R. Young, L. Rainville, H.L. Simmons, V. Hormann,
and I. Stokes
22 Blocked Drainpipes and Smoking Chimneys: Discovery of New Near-Inertial
Wave Phenomena in Anticyclones
By L.N. Thomas, J.N. Moum, L. Qu, J.P. Hilditch, E. Kunze, L. Rainville, and C.M. Lee
34 Near-Inertial Energy Variability in a Strong Mesoscale Eddy Field in the
Iceland Basin
By G. Voet, A.F. Waterhouse, A. Savage, E. Kunze, J.A. MacKinnon, M.H. Alford, J.A. Colosi,
H.L. Simmons, T. Klenz, S.M. Kelly, J.N. Moum, C.B. Whalen, R.-C. Lien, and J.B. Girton
48 Observations of the Upper Ocean from Autonomous Platforms During the
Passage of Extratropical Cyclone Epsilon (2020)
By M.T. Zimmerman, S.R. Jayne, L. Rainville, C.M. Lee, J.M. Toole, J.B. Edson, C.A. Clayson,
A.K. Ekholm, and C.R. Densmore
58 Coherent Float Arrays for Near-Inertial Wave Studies
By J.B. Girton, C.B. Whalen, R.-C. Lien, and E. Kunze
68 Interaction of Typhoon-Driven Near-Inertial Waves with an Anticyclone in the
Philippine Sea
By C.Z. Lazaneo, L. Thomas, Z.B. Szuts, J.M. Cusack, K.-F. Chang, and R.K. Shearman
DEPARTMENTS
5 QUARTERDECK. International Cooperation Enriched the Near-Inertial Shear
and Kinetic Energy in the North Atlantic Experiment
By L. Centurioni and T. Paluszkiewicz
82 WORKSHOP REPORT. Observing Ocean Boundary Currents: Lessons
Learned from Six Regions with Mature Observational and Modeling Systems
By N.K. Ayoub, M.P. Chidichimo, E. Dever, X. Guo, S.Y. Kim, M. Krug, B.M. Míguez, T. Morris,
M. Roughan, J. Sprintall, K. Tanaka, R.E. Todd, J. Wilkin, E. Álvarez-Fanjul, M. Andres,
A. Bosse, C.A. Edwards, J. Gula, C.G. Kerry, Y. Miyazawa, P. Oddo, E. Oka, and K.D. Zaba
92 THE OCEANOGRAPHY CLASSROOM. Supporting Sensemaking by
Introducing a Connecting Thread Throughout a Course
By K. Daae, S. Semper, and M.S. Glessmer
95 FROM THE TOS JEDI COMMITTEE. Recognizing JEDI Eforts in the Hiring,
Tenure, and Promotion Process
By J. Pierson, G. Nesslage, A. Fries, H. Kelsey, F. Chen, C. Davis, and K. Rose
97 CAREER PROFILES. Emma R. Ozanich, Project Scientist and Acoustic
Modeler, JASCO Applied Sciences • Cassaundra Rose, Policy Advisor, Natural
and Working Lands, US Climate Alliance
10
68
34
48
December 2024 | Oceanography
Oceanography | Vol. 37, No. 4
ON THE COVER
Photo of a Wirewalker deployment from
R/V Armstrong taken during a 2018 cruise sup-
porting the Near-Inertial Shear and Kinetic
Energy in the North Atlantic Experiment
(NISKINe). Photo credit: San Nguyen, Scripps
Institution of Oceanography
SPECIAL ISSUE GUEST EDITORS
Harper L. Simmons, University of Washington
Leif Thomas, Stanford University
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December 2024 | Oceanography
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December 2024 | Oceanography
Oceanography | Vol. 37, No. 4
THE OCEANOGRAPHY SOCIETY’S
HONORS PROGRAM
One of the most meaningful aspects of being a member of
The Oceanography Society (TOS) is the opportunity to recog-
nize and celebrate our colleagues’ accomplishments. Please
take this opportunity to recognize a colleague, mentor, team,
or peer for their exceptional achievements and contributions
to the ocean sciences.
Medals
WALLACE S. BROECKER MEDAL is awarded biennially
to an individual for innovative and impactful contributions to
the advancement or application of marine geoscience, chem-
ical oceanography, or paleoceanography. Nomination dead-
line: October 31, 2025.
The NILS GUNNAR JERLOV MEDAL is awarded bien-
nially to an individual for advancing our knowledge of
how light interacts with the ocean. Nomination deadline:
October 31, 2025.
The WALTER MUNK MEDAL is awarded biennially to
an individual for extraordinary accomplishments and novel
insights contributing to the advancement or application of
physical oceanography, ocean acoustics, or marine geophys-
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tos.org/honors
December 2024 | Oceanography
A critical part of launching an intensive physical oceanography
feld campaign is identifying the appropriate patch of ocean—
the area where the process you wish to study dependably occurs
and has maximum impact. Early explorations and publica-
tions helped establish the region of Iceland as the ideal candi-
date for the US Ofce of Naval Research Departmental Research
Initiative, the Near-Inertial Shear and Kinetic Energy in the
North Atlantic Experiment (NISKINe). As the NISKINe group
organized the experiment, the local Icelandic marine science
community’s expertise was of principal importance in formulat-
ing specifcs of its timing, location, and component interactions.
International feld programs are so much more enlightening
and fulflling when we learn from one another and gain under-
standing of new cultures and ways of looking at science. Te
friendships and colleagueships that were initiated as a result of
NISKINe continue to grow and contribute to the international
ocean science community’s capacity. We are grateful to our
colleagues at the Icelandic Marine and Fresh Water Institute,
the Icelandic Coast Guard, the Meteorological Ofce, and the
University of Iceland for their hospitality, guidance, and shared
contributions that made this program a success.
AUTHORS
Luca Centurioni (lcenturioni@ucsd.edu) is Associate Editor, Oceanography, and
Director, Lagrangian Drifter Laboratory, Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
La Jolla, CA, USA. Terri Paluszkiewicz is President, Octopus Ocean Consulting
LLC, VA, USA.
ARTICLE DOI
https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2024.310
QUARTERDECK
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
ENRICHED THE NEAR-INERTIAL SHEAR AND KINETIC
ENERGY IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC EXPERIMENT
By Luca Centurioni and Terri Paluszkiewicz
Oceanography Flipbooks
https://oceanography.publuu.com
Be sure to visit the open access Oceanography flipbook library to
page through the full NISKINe special issue. While there, explore other
Oceanography issues back to March 2015.
AUTHORS! Flipbooks are an exciting enhancement to Oceanography.
In these flipbooks, we can embed videos, animations, photo galleries,
and audio files in your article. For details on file sizes and formats, visit
https://tos.org/oceanography/guidelines.
Oceanography | Vol. 37, No. 4
INTRODUCTION
Near-inertial internal waves (NIW)
constitute a dominant mode of high-
frequency variability in the ocean’s inte-
rior, comprising about half the kinetic
energy in the ocean at most sites (and
even more in the winter beneath storm
tracks; Alford et al., 2016). Over the last
decade there has been a signifcant focus
in the physical oceanographic commu-
nity on internal tides, which produce large
thermocline displacements, afect sound
propagation, and control some hotspots
of elevated turbulent mixing. Near-
inertial internal gravity waves, which are
primarily generated not by tides but by
winds, are of similar importance, provid-
ing comparable kinetic energy and the
vast majority of the shear variance, and
likely leading to a substantial amount of
turbulent mixing. Signifcant defciencies
remain in our understanding of the phys-
ical processes that determine their gener-
ation, evolution, and destruction.
No existing regional or global numer-
ical models fully account for the gener-
ation, radiation, and breaking of NIWs,
largely because of the need for high reso-
lution to resolve the high-mode structure
and because the physics is not sufciently
understood. Te NIW problem has been
difcult to address, partially due to the
episodic nature of wind generation and
the nonlinear physics involved. Te sem-
inal experimental study of NIWs was the
Ocean Storms Experiment (OSE), which
took place in the late 1980s (D’Asaro
et al., 1995). Te main focus of the OSE
was on the larger-scale lateral structure of
NIWs, which theory predicts is shaped by
Earth’s curvature through the so-called
beta efect (Gill, 1984). During the OSE,
the role of the beta efect in leading to the
initial growth of horizontal gradients in
the NIW feld was clearly demonstrated,
leading to a qualitative agreement with
theory. However, the theory could not
reproduce the observed “beam,” wherein
energy migrated quickly downward with
time from the mixed layer following
storm events. An important consequence
is that neither the decay of mixed-layer
motions nor the rate of energy transfer
into the deep ocean can adequately be
predicted for the best-documented storm
response on record. Tis conundrum
has remained for the past 35 years since
these data were collected, in part because
the OSE data lacked sufcient vertical
and horizontal resolution to quantify the
detailed structures of the NIWs and their
evolution. Moreover, the vital question of
the distribution of mixing by the NIWs
was unaddressed by the OSE.
Motivated by these questions, in 2016
the US Ofce of Naval Research spon-
sored the Near-Inertial Shear and Kinetic
Energy in the North Atlantic experiment
(NISKINe). Te objective was to exam-
ine how NIWs rapidly radiate out of the
mixed layer by developing smaller-scale
horizontal structures through interaction
with ocean eddies and how NIWs gener-
ate turbulence and mixing. Conducted
in the eddy-rich, stormy North Atlantic
during certain periods from 2018 to 2020,
NISKINe utilized conceptualized studies,
numerical modeling, and the latest tech-
nology to make direct, high-resolution
observations of the NIW feld to examine
the physics. Here, we describe some high-
lights of the multi-year study and intro-
duce a collection of articles that elaborate
on the fndings.
NISKINe
NISKINe combined observational, mod-
eling, and theoretical approaches to
underpin the at-sea science. Te program
integrated results from three feld years
in the Iceland Basin: a 2018 pilot study,
a 2019 full-scale deployment, and a mod-
est (pandemic impacted) efort in 2020.
Tese data collection eforts were central
to NISKINe, as they formed the basis for
theoretical and process-oriented model-
ing eforts. Process-oriented studies that
addressed NIW generation, NIW-eddy
interactions, and the role of surface waves
in afecting the energy input to NIWs
included those by Asselin and Young
(2020), Asselin et al. (2020), Barkan
et al. (2021), Skyllingstad et al. (2023),
and Stokes et al. (2024). Tese detailed
works were framed by studies utilizing
global ocean models for broader under-
standing of NIW signifcance including
Arbic et al. (2022), Raja et al. (2022), and
Yang et al. (2023).
For the 2018 pilot experiment, a
dipole in the Icelandic Basin identifed
INTRODUCTION
THE NEAR-INERTIAL SHEAR AND KINETIC ENERGY
IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC EXPERIMENT
By Harper L. Simmons, Louis St. Laurent, Luc Rainville, and Leif Thomas
INTRODUCTION TO THE
SPECIAL ISSUE ON NISKINe
December 2024 | Oceanography
from satellite altimetry was selected as
the study site (Figure 1). Te particu-
lar dipole targeted was identifed in the
weeks prior to the onset of the cruise. Te
study consisted of several weeks of direct
measurements from R/V Neil Armstrong
augmented by a large number of auton-
omous systems, including drifers, a
Wirewalker, and uncrewed underwater
vehicle (UUV) gliders (Figure 2). Te
cyclone/ anticyclone dipole pair was asso-
ciated with negative dynamic height
and cold surface water on the cyclonic
(counterclockwise circulating) side and
positive dynamics height and warm water
surface waters on the anticyclonic (clock-
wise circulating) side. Te study period
was characterized by extremely deep
mixed layers on the cyclonic side of the
dipole and winds that generally remained
above 10 m s–1. Te passage of a series of
atmospheric cyclones with strong winds
and high sea states (Figure 3) forced
episodic rapid deepening of the sur-
face boundary layer (Klenz et al., 2022).
Surface cooling was generally unim-
portant, but the Stokes forcing played a
leading- order role in mixed and turbu-
lent boundary layer deepening (Figure 3;
Skyllingstad et al., 2023).
Te fndings from the pilot study moti-
vated the larger 2019 study of a similar
dipole at almost the same site (Figure 2),
which again utilized R/V Neil Armstrong
along with profling foats (Kunze et al.,
2023; Girton et al., 2024, in this issue),
uncrewed surface vehicle (USV) Wave
Gliders, gliders, surface drifers, and
moorings (Voet et al., 2024, in this issue).
Tis range of resources allowed the team
to examine the properties of near- inertial
response in both cyclonic and anti-
cyclonic fows (Tomas et al., 2020, 2023;
and 2024a, 2024b, both in this issue). Te
2019 program consisted of four mod-
ules: (1) “jet + confuence,” that exam-
ined the evolution of inertial oscillations
(35 kts wind event) in strong cyclonic
and anticyclonic vorticity, (2) “sheepdog”
with a drifing array in a quieter region,
(3) a mapping survey, and (4) “fence” and
“greyhound” to sample the inertial wave
feld at the edge of an anticyclonic eddy
with strong submesoscale gradients in a
strong frontal region (Figure 4).
A second full-scale process cruise
planned for 2020 was scaled back due to
the Covid pandemic and reoriented to
focus on mooring recovery with a min-
imal autonomous presence. With the
loss of ship time, the focus of the study
shifed closer to Iceland, north of the
North Atlantic Current frontal system,
with measurements made during the
September to November period using
drifers, foats, and USV and UUV glid-
ers (Figure 2a). Te 2020 efort also fea-
tured an Air-Launched Autonomous
Micro-Observer profling foat and a spar
buoy system (Zimmerman et al., 2024, in
this issue) that measured the enhanced
near-inertial forcing and breakdown of
summer surface stratifcation caused by
the passage of an extratropical cyclone.
FIGURE 1. Track of R/V Neil
Armstrong (heavy black line).
Drifter tracks are colored by sea
surface temperature. They are
overlaid by satellite dynamic
topography (absolute dynamic
topography [ADT] from EU
Copernicus Marine Service,
https:// doi.org/ 10.48670/ moi-
00148), with negative ADT
(cold surface waters) indicated
by dashed contours and posi-
tive ADT (warm surface waters)
indicated by solid contours.
FIGURE 2. (a) Autonomous assets
used during the Near-Inertial Shear
and Kinetic Energy in the North
Atlantic
experiment
(NISKINe),
2018–2021. While the focus of the
experiment was on the vorticity
associated with the North Atlantic
Current Extension, other observa-
tional eforts centered on the role
of the near-inertial response above
the Reykjanes Ridge and along
the margin of the Icelandic Basin.
(b) R/V Neil Armstrong tracks in
support of NISKINe, 2018–2019.
The 2020 field efort was also
orchestrated using a combination
of chartered vessels and the sup-
port of the Icelandic Coast Guard.
Oceanography | Vol. 37, No. 4
FIGURE 3. UUV sampling during the 2018 pilot experiment. The left panels are temperature and salinity from Seaglider 124, with mixed layer depth indi-
cated. Wind and wave conditions (top right panels) and upper ocean turbulent dissipation rate (lower right panel) from Slocum glider “Husker” over the
course of several strong storms during the cruise period. White dots indicate mixed layer depth, and the contours indicate the ε = 10–9 and 10–7 W kg–1
dissipation levels. See also Figure 2.
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
During the multiple years of the NISKINe
program, an extraordinary number
of autonomous assets were employed
(Figure 2a). Te NISKINe study may be
among the largest collective deployments
of autonomous assets for a single pro-
gram. Tis focused use of autonomous
assets was particularly helpful in 2020,
when the Covid pandemic signifcantly
impacted the availability of ship-based
sampling. Together with ship sampling
and moorings, autonomous platforms
captured processes happening on many
diferent temporal and spatial scales that
are fundamental to understanding the
evolution of near-inertial waves.
While results from the NISKINe study
are still being assessed and written up, a
clear outcome of the program is a better
understanding of the signifcant role that
vorticity plays in moderating the input
and subsequent cascade of near-inertial
energy and shear into the ocean interior.
Such NIW-eddy interactions are high-
lighted in this special issue (e.g., Tomas
et al., 2024a). Te coupling of the atmo-
spheric storm track with enhanced
oceanic vorticity in the region of the
North Atlantic Current distinguishes
FIGURE 4. Sampling modules during the 2019 process cruise. The cruise track, colored by abso-
lute sea surface salinity, is overlaid upon contours of dynamic topography (2 cm intervals). The color
scale for salinity, the same for all panels, shows the details of the frontal stratification that character-
izes the submesoscale dynamics of the flow. Modules 1–4 are described in the text.
-28°
-26°
-24°
-22°
-20°
57°
58°
59°
60°
61°
35.1
35.15
35.2
35.25
35.3 g/kg
sea surface
absolute salinity
29 May 1400 to 06 Jun 0800
05 Jun 0800 to 08 Jun 0100
57°40’
57°50’
57°30’
57°20’
57°00’
24°00’
23°30’
24°30’
23°00’
22°00’
23°30’
22°30’
22°00’
21°00’
20°30’
22°30’
21°30’
24°00’
23°00’
22°30’
23°30’
57°10’
57°30’
57°20’
57°10’
58°10’
58°00’
57°50’
58°10’
58°20’
58°30’
58°40’
58°00’
58°10’
58°20’
58°30’
58°40’
58°50’
58°00’
08 Jun 0400 to 09 Jun 1500
09 Jun 1500 to 15 Jun 2100
20 km
20 km
20 km
20 km
confluence
jet
sheepdog
100 km
moorings
greyhound
deployment
array #2
deployment
array #3
deployment
array #1
fence
CTDs
uCTD
uCTD
20 May
27 May
03 Jun
10 Jun
17 Jun
24 Jun
01 Jul
200
400
600
800
1000
depth [m]
34.9
35
35.1
35.2
35.3
35.4
35.5 psu
MLD
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600 650
700 km
cumulative distance along track
20 May
27 May
03 Jun
10 Jun
17 Jun
24 Jun
01 Jul
200
400
600
800
1000
depth [m]
10
11
12°C
MLD
19 May
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
20
18
16
14
12
10
21 May
23 May
25 May
27 May
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
u10
Hs