Oceanography | Vol. 38, No. 2
72
REFERENCES
Arar, E.J., and G.B. Collins. 1997. Method 445.0 in Vitro Determination of
Chlorophyll a and Pheophytin A in Marine and Freshwater Algae by
Fluorescence. EPA 445, The US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC, 22 pp.
Ardiles, P., P. Cerezal-Mezquita, F. Salinas-Fuentes, D. Ordenes, G. Renato, and
M.C. Ruiz-Dominguez. 2020. Biochemical composition and phycoerythrin
extraction from red microalgae: A comparative study using green extraction
technologies. Processes 8:1628, https://www.doi.org/10.3390/pr8121628.
Attivissimo, F., C.G.C. Carducci, A.M.L. Lanzolla, A. Massaro, and M.R. Vadrucci.
2015. A portable optical sensor for sea quality monitoring. IEEE Sensors
Journal 15(1):146–153, https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2014.2340437.
Butler, J., and C.M.L.S. Pagniello. 2021. Emerging, low-cost ocean observing tech
nologies to democratize access to the ocean. Pp. 94–95 in Frontiers in Ocean
Observing: Documenting Ecosystems, Understanding Environmental Changes,
Forecasting Hazards. E.S. Kappel, S.K. Juniper, S. Seeyave, E. Smith, and
M. Visbeck, eds, A Supplement to Oceanography 34(4), https://doi.org/10.5670/
oceanog.2021.supplement.02-35.
Briggs, N., M.J. Perry, I. Cetinić, C. Lee, E. D’Asaro, A.M. Gray, and E. Rehm. 2011.
High-resolution observations of aggregate flux during a sub-polar North Atlantic
spring bloom. Deep Sea Research Part I 58(10)1,031–1, 039, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.dsr.2011.07.007.
Cetinić, I., M.J. Perry, N.T. Briggs, E. Kallin, E.A. D’Asaro, and C.M. Lee. 2012.
Particulate organic carbon and inherent optical properties during 2008
North Atlantic Bloom Experiment. Journal of Geophysical Research 117(C6),
https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007771.
Davidson, K., S. Jardine, S. Martino, G. Myre, L. Peck, and R. Raymond. 2020.
The economic impacts of harmful algal blooms on salmon cage aquaculture.
Pp. 84–94 in GlobalHAB: Evaluating, Reducing and Mitigating the Cost of
Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium of Case Studies. PICES, Victoria, Canada,
https://www.doi.org/10.25607/OBP-1709.
Dever, M., M. Freilich, J.T. Farrar, B. Hodges, T. Lanagan, A.J. Baron, and
A. Mahadevan. 2020. EcoCTD for profiling oceanic physical–biological
properties from an underway ship. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic
Technology 37(5):825–840, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-19-0145.1.
Downing, J. 2006. Twenty-five years with OBS sensors: The good, the bad, and the
ugly. Continental Shelf Research 26(17–18):2,299–2,318, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.csr.2006.07.018.
Fennel, K., M.C. Long, C. Algar, B. Carter, D. Keller, A. Laurent, J.P. Mattern,
R. Musgrave, A. Oschlies, J. Ostiguy, and others. 2023. Chapter 9 in Modelling
Considerations for Research on Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement (OAE).
A. Oschlies, A. Stevenson, L.T. Bach, K. Fennel, R.E.M. Rickaby, T. Satterfield,
R. Webb, and J.-P. Gattuso, eds, Copernicus Publications, State of the Planet,
Gottingen, Germany, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-9-2023.
Giesbrecht, J., and J. Scrutton. 2018. Underwater Optical Imaging to Aid in Docking
an Unmanned Underwater Vehicle to a Submarine: Preliminary Experimental
Investigations. D68-2/155-2017E-PDF. Defence Research and Development
Canada, Canada, 46 pp., https://publications.gc.ca/pub?id=9.875743&sl=0.
Harden-Davies, H., D.J. Amon, M. Vierros, N.J. Bax, Q. Hanich, J.M. Hills, M. Guilhon,
K.A. McQuaid, E. Mohammed, A. Pouponneau, and others. 2022. Capacity devel
opment in the Ocean Decade and beyond: Key questions about meanings, moti
vations, pathways, and measurements. Earth System Governance 12:100138,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2022.100138.
Jaeschke, D.P., I.R. Teixeira, L.D.F. Marczak, and G.D. Mercali. 2021. Phycocyanin
from Spirulina: A review of extraction methods and stability. Food Research
International 143:110314, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110314.
Kristoffersen, A.S., S.R. Erga, B. Hamre, and O. Frette. 2018. Testing fluorescence
lifetime standards using two-photon excitation and time-domain instrumen
tation: Fluorescein, quinine sulfate and green fluorescent protein. Journal of
Fluorescence 28:1,065–1,073, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10895-018-2270-z.
Leeuw, T., E.S. Boss, and D.L. Wright. 2013. In situ measurements of phyto
plankton fluorescence using low cost electronics. Sensors 13(6):7,872–7,883,
https://doi.org/10.3390/s130607872.
Mardones, J.I., D.S. Holland, L. Anderson, V.L. Bihan, F. Gianella, A. Clement,
K. Davidson, S. Sakamoto, T. Yoshida, and V.L. Trainer. 2020. Estimating and mit
igating the economic costs of harmful algal blooms on commercial and recre
ational shellfish harvesters. Pp. 59–83 in GlobalHAB: Evaluating, Reducing and
Mitigating the Cost of Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium of Case Studies.
PICES, Victoria, Canada, https://www.doi.org/10.25607/OBP-1709.
Matos, T., C.L. Faria, M.S. Martins, R. Henriques, P.A. Gomes, and L.M. Goncalves.
2020. Design of a multipoint cost-effective optical instrument for continuous
in-situ monitoring of turbidity and sediment. Sensors 20(11):3194, https://doi.org/
10.3390/s20113194.
Park, K.T., J.J. Creelman, A.S. Chua, T.S. Chambers, A.M. MacNeill, and
V.J. Sieben. 2023. A low-cost fluorometer applied to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Rhodamine Tracer Experiment. IEEE Sensors Journal 23(15):16,772–16,787,
https://www.doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2023.3283977.
Poniedziałek, B., H.I. Falfushynska, and P. Rzymski. 2017. Flow cytometry
as a valuable tool to study cyanobacteria: A mini-review. Limnological
Review 17(2):89–95.
Shen, L., X. Huiping, and G. Xulin. 2012. Satellite remote sensing of harm
ful algal blooms (HABs) and a potential synthesized framework.
Sensors 12(6):7,778–7,803, https://www.doi.org/10.3390/s120607778.
Shigemitsu, M., H. Uchida, T. Yokokawa, K. Arulananthan, and A. Murata. 2020.
Determining the distribution of fluorescent organic matter in the Indian Ocean
using in situ fluorometry. Frontiers in Microbiology 11:589262, https://doi.org/
10.3389/fmicb.2020.589262.
Sieben, V.J., C.F.A. Floquet, I.R.G. Ogilvie, M.C. Mowlem, and H. Morgan. 2010.
Microfluidic colourimetric chemical analysis system: Application to nitrite detec
tion. Analytical Methods 2(5):484–491, https://www.doi.org/10.1039/C002672G.
Smart, P.L., and I.M.S. Laidlaw. 1977. An evaluation of some fluorescent dyes for
water tracing. Water Resources Research 13(1):15–33, https://www.doi.org/
10.1029/WR013i001p00015.
Truter, J. 2015. Using Low Cost Components to Determine Chlorophyll
Concentration by Measuring Fluorescence Intensity. MSc Thesis, University of
Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, https://hdl.handle.net/11427/24296.
Watras, C.J., K.A. Morrison, J.L. Rubsam, P.C. Hanson, A.J. Watras, G.D. LaLibertie,
and P. Milewski. 2017. A temperature compensation method for chlorophyll and
phycocyanin fluorescence sensors in freshwater. Limnology and Oceanography:
Methods 15:642–652, https://doi.org/10.1002/lom3.10188.
Weir, M.J., M. Kourantidou, and D. Jin. 2022. Economic impacts of harmful
algal blooms on fishery-dependent communities. Harmful Algae 118:102321,
https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2022.102321.
Wheaton, J.E.G., D. Griffiths, and R.C.M. Learner. 1979. Underwater Fluorometer
Measuring System. The US Patent and Trademark Office, Alexandria, VA,
#4,293,225, 8 pp.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Teo Milos, Mickey Jackson, Chidinma Onumadu, and
Rehan Khalid for their senior-year project contributions in the end-cap design.
We also would like to thank Iain Grundke, Edward Luy, and James Smith, from
Dartmouth Ocean Technologies Inc. for advice in the early stage of the proj
ect. This work was funded in part by the Canada First Research Excellence Fund
(CFREF) through the Ocean Frontier Institute (OFI) and Transforming Climate
Action (TCA), the National Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC)
of Canada, and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation John Evans Leadership
Fund. We would like to thank Ruth Musgrave, Ruby Yee, and Mathieu Dever for
their contribution of fluorometry data from their transect study to this work. We fur
ther acknowledge the funding sources of their contribution; the transect study
was funded in part by NSERC, the OFI, and the Trottier Family Foundation. The
fieldwork in Halifax Harbor was supported in part by the Carbon to Sea Initiative,
a multi-funder effort incubated by Additional Ventures, and the Thistledown
Foundation. We would like to thank Claire Normandeau, Jessica Oberlander, and
Lindsay Anderson for their help in analyzing RWT samples in the laboratory. We
would like to acknowledge support from Douglas Wallace in providing scientific
guidance and access to the infrastructure and materials at the CERC.OCEAN labo
ratory. The maps provided in Figure 4 and Figure S2 contain information licensed
under the Open Government Licence – Canada.
AUTHORS
Kyle Park (kyle.park@dal.ca), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. Dariia Atamanchuk, Department of
Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. Aaron MacNeil and
Vincent Sieben, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Dalhousie
University, Halifax, Canada.
ARTICLE CITATION
Park, K., D. Atamanchuk, A. MacNeill, and V. Sieben. 2025. The PIXIE: A low-cost,
open-source, multichannel in situ fluorometer applied to dye-tracing in Halifax
Harbor. Oceanography 38(2):66–72, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2025.309.
COPYRIGHT & USAGE
This is an open access article made available under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and repro
duction in any medium or format as long as users cite the materials appropriately,
provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate the changes that
were made to the original content.